Molybdenum

Molybdenum Supplements in Australia

Molybdenum is an essential trace mineral that plays a key role in various enzymatic reactions in the body. This article provides a comprehensive overview of molybdenum supplements, including the health benefits, recommended intakes, dietary sources, potential side effects, and frequently asked questions about molybdenum supplementation in the Australian context.

Introduction to Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a trace element found naturally in certain foods. It is an essential mineral for human health and serves as a cofactor for important enzymes in the body[1].

Some key facts about molybdenum:

• It has the atomic symbol Mo and atomic number 42.
• Molybdenum exists in a number of oxidation states, with +4 and +6 being the most common.
• It is classified as a transition metal, along with elements like iron, cobalt, and chromium.
• Molybdenum often exists as molybdates (MoO42-) in nature.
• It is found in soil and transferred into plant foods grown in those soils. Higher levels are found in legumes, grains, nuts, and leafy greens.
• Animal foods like meat, fish, and dairy contain lower levels of molybdenum.
• The average daily intake of molybdenum is 76-109 μg per day in the United States and 120-240 μg in Australia[1].

Molybdenum as an Essential Nutrient

Although required only in trace amounts, molybdenum is essential for human health. Here are some key functions:

• Enzyme cofactor: Molybdenum is a key component of enzymes including sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and mitochondrial amidoxime reducing component[1]. These enzymes play diverse roles in processing amino acids, antioxidants, and toxins in the body.
• Detoxification: The molybdenum-containing enzymes are involved in the breakdown of certain toxins and waste products like sulfite, xanthine, and aldehydes[1]. This makes molybdenum important for detoxification.
• Antioxidant function: By supporting sulfite oxidase, molybdenum promotes the production of sulphate, a key antioxidant needed to combat free radicals.
• Iron utilisation: Molybdenum may support the mobilisation and utilisation of iron by assisting with the processing of heme.

The Role of Molybdenum Cofactor in Enzymes

Molybdenum exerts its effects by being a part of molybdenum cofactor (Moco). Moco consists of a molybdenum ion bound to a unique organic pterin compound.

Once assembled, the molybdenum cofactor gets incorporated into specific enzymes:

• Sulfite oxidase: This enzyme converts sulfite to sulphate, allowing for the metabolism of sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine. Sulfite oxidase requires Moco for its activity[1].
• Xanthine oxidase: This enzyme involved in purine metabolism also relies on Moco. It helps metabolise xanthine and hypoxanthine, which are byproducts of DNA and RNA breakdown.
• Aldehyde oxidase: Moco enables aldehyde oxidase to metabolise aldehydes from alcohol metabolism and help process drugs and toxins[1].
• Mitochondrial amidoxime reducing component (mARC): This newly discovered molybdenum enzyme may be involved in detoxifying potentially harmful byproducts of cellular metabolism.

Therefore, molybdenum's role as an enzyme cofactor allows it to support detoxification pathways, antioxidant systems, and nutrient metabolism in the body.

Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiency and its Implications

Insufficient levels of molybdenum cofactor due to molybdenum deficiency or genetic factors can lead to issues:

• Sulfite toxicity: Lack of sulfite oxidase activity leads to a toxic buildup of sulfite. This can cause neurological issues and brain damage, especially in infants[1].
• Xanthine stones: With insufficient xanthine oxidase, xanthine builds up and creates crystals and stones in the kidneys and urinary tract.
• Impaired drug metabolism: The activity of aldehyde oxidase will be lowered, impacting the body's ability to break down certain drugs.
• Neurological symptoms: Abnormalities in molybdenum cofactor enzymes can lead to seizures, developmental delays, brain abnormalities, and movement disorders in infants.

Therefore, adequate molybdenum intake is crucial for generating sufficient molybdenum cofactor and preventing deficiency. Supplements may be appropriate in cases of inadequate dietary supply.

Potential Health Benefits of Molybdenum

Here are some of the key ways in which molybdenum may promote health:

Breakdown of Toxins

The molybdenum-containing enzyme systems facilitate the metabolism and excretion of certain toxins:

• Sulfites: Molybdenum as part of sulfite oxidase catalyses the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate, preventing sulfite accumulation.
• Purines: Xanthine oxidase metabolises purines like xanthine and hypoxanthine, which can be toxic at high concentrations.
• Aldehydes: Aldehyde oxidase breaks down aldehydes from alcohol metabolism into carboxylic acids for excretion.

Therefore, adequate molybdenum may support detox pathways.

Male Fertility and Hormone Balance

Molybdenum plays a role as a cofactor for aldehyde oxidase, which is involved in metabolising excess oestrogen and regulating steroid balance. It may also help recycle oxidised cofactors like NADPH. Through these mechanisms, molybdenum supports male fertility and testosterone function.

Arthritis Management

Molybdenum supports xanthine oxidase, which helps break down purines. This prevents a buildup of uric acid, which can exacerbate arthritis symptoms. The anti-inflammatory effects of molybdenum may also benefit arthritis.

Improvement in Carbohydrate Metabolism

Molybdenum-dependent enzymes help break down sulfites, which can react with and inactivate insulin. By supporting sulfite metabolism, molybdenum may aid carbohydrate metabolism and blood sugar control.

Management of Sulfite Allergies

In those with sulfite sensitivity, molybdenum supplements may help support sulfite oxidase activity and minimise adverse reactions to sulfites in food.

Promotion of Cellular Health

As an antioxidant mineral, molybdenum enhances free radical scavenging both directly and through its role in activating sulfite oxidase. This helps maintain healthy cells.

Dietary Recommendations and Sources of Molybdenum

Molybdenum is found in a wide variety of foods, but the amount depends on the soil content. Here are the recommended intakes and dietary sources:

Recommended Intake for Children

Age Group	Recommended Daily Intake
1-3 years	17 μg
4-8 years	22 μg
9-13 years	34 μg

Recommended Intake for Adults

Age Group	Recommended Daily Intake
Men 19–50 years	45 μg
Women 19–50 years	45 μg

Recommended Intake for Pregnancy and Lactation

Trimester	Recommended Daily Intake
Pregnancy	50 μg
Lactation	50 μg

Reference: Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand

Potential Side Effects and Risks of Molybdenum Supplementation

Molybdenum is generally safe at recommended intakes, but excess supplementation may cause:

• Gout-like symptoms with joint pain
• Poor bone health at very high doses
• Reduced fertility
• Impaired copper absorption

The Upper Limit is 2,000 μg/day for adults. Molybdenum supplements should be avoided in those with gout or impaired kidney function.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the symptoms of molybdenum deficiency?

• Severe molybdenum deficiency is rare but can cause neurological symptoms in infants. Mild deficiency has not been observed.

What foods contain molybdenum?

• Legumes, grains, nuts, leafy greens, liver, and milk are good sources. The amount in plants depends on the soil molybdenum content.

What is the recommended daily intake of molybdenum?

• The RDI is 45 μg/day for adults. Pregnant women need 50 μg/day and lactating women need 50 μg/day.

Is molybdenum safe to take as a supplement?

• Yes, molybdenum is safe at recommended intakes but excess supplementation above 2,000 μg/day may cause side effects. Those with gout or kidney issues should avoid supplements.

Can molybdenum help with arthritis?

• Some evidence suggests molybdenum may help prevent a buildup of uric acid that exacerbates arthritis. More research is needed to confirm benefits.

Conclusion

Molybdenum is an essential trace mineral that serves vital roles as an enzyme cofactor for metabolism and detoxification. Adequate molybdenum intakes support antioxidant function, male fertility, arthritis management, and carbohydrate metabolism. While readily available in foods, molybdenum supplementation may benefit those with inadequate intakes. However, excess molybdenum can cause adverse effects and should be avoided. When taken at recommended levels, molybdenum supplements appear to be safe and potentially beneficial. Those considering supplementation should discuss with a healthcare professional.

References

[1] National Health and Medical Research Council, Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand, Molybdenum, 2017.

Citations: [1] https://ppl-ai-file-upload.s3.amazonaws.com/web/direct-files/1195734/06b74121-f0cb-4b0b-b6f9-eae4f92122b9/n35-molybdenum_0.pdf